The British philosopher Antony Flew is best known as a leading “ordinary language” philosopher. In reaction to the attempt by the logical positivists and others to settle philosophical disputes through resort to an “ideal language,” the ordinary language movement contended that philosophical muddles often arise through lack of attention to the ordinary use of words. Flew, like his mentors Gilbert Ryle and J.L. Austin, was at the peak of his fame in the 1950s and 1960s. But he continued his work long after that.

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As Americans approach a date with their polling places and “get out the vote” campaigns crescendo, there is plenty of rhetoric that all but deifies democracy.

In the lead-up to this November’s election, democracy has been increasingly held up by many as the touchstone of American greatness. But I have noticed that very few making such claims make reference to Alexis de Tocqueville, whose 1835 Democracy in America has been termed “one of the wisest works of modern thought” and which for understanding and preserving liberty it has been said “the intelligent American reader can find no better guide.” Herbert Muller called it “more comprehensive and more penetrating than any contemporary studies.”

Tuesday is the last chance for (most) Americans to cast their vote for president. What will make the difference in attaining victory? When it comes to messaging, Team Biden relies on elite news outlets for assurances of victory, while Team Trump’s preferred sources are blacklisted by social media and ignored by broadcast news organization.

But what does recent history tell us about which voice is most likely to prevail?

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